Echinacea is an herb belonging to the family of Asteraceae, which is a coneflower. It is an herbaceous flowering plant. Echinacea is endemic to North America where it is grown in dry to moist prairies and even in wooded areas. Echinacea was named after a Greek word meaning sea urchin because of its spiny central disk. Echinacea was widely used for its general medicinal uses starting the 19^th century. It has become popular in USA and Europe as an herbal remedy.

The active substances in Echinacea responsible for its medicinal use are phenols such as caftaric acid, cichoric acid and echinacoside. These active substances may have direct antimicrobial properties or have indirect immunomodulating effects enhancing the immune system. Echinacea may also have antiviral and antifungal properties.

Echinacea herbal supplements are manufactured from the roots as well as the leaves and the flowers of the herb. The most commonly used varieties are Echinacea pallida, Echinacea purpurea, and Echinacea angustifolia

Uses of Echinacea

Echinacea has been a popular herb for the past years because of its vast medicinal sues. These include:

Immunological Benefits

Echinacea has the ability to improve and boost the immune system by stimulating the non-specific immune system of people. According to studies, taking Echinacea may reduce the chances of getting a cold by half.

Cold and sore throat remedy

Aside from possible prevention of cold, Echinacea can also shorten the duration of a cold by 1 to 2 days. The juice from the flowering herb is usually taken to treat colds. It is also useful in limiting symptoms of sore throat such as itching and dryness of the pharynx.

Laxative

Traditional use of Echinacea includes being a laxative.

Analgesic and Headache remedy

The Native Americans also used Echinacea as a remedy for body pains and headache.

Echinacea should be taken at the very first sign of colds in order to become effective. Subsequent doses are given every two to three hours until cold symptoms disappear.

Echinacea Side effects

Echinacea does not usually cause Echinacea side effects when taken by mouth because of being a natural herb. Echinacea side-effects tend to be rare, reversible and mild in nature, making Echinacea safe for human use.

The most common Echinacea side effects include skin and gastrointestinal Echinacea side effects. These include:

1. Integumentary Echinacea side effects

Itching

Patients who may be sensitive to Echinacea may develop mild itching that may be resolved after the use of the herb.

Rash

Rash may also develop on the arms, chest and legs and few on the face when Echinacea is taken in huge amounts as a result of reactions to excessive levels of Echinacea in the body.

2. Gastrointestinal Echinacea side effects

Nausea

The gastrointestinal Echinacea side effects are rooted on the possible increase in the bacteroides in the GIT that may disrupt the normal flora in the GIT. Nausea is a possible Echinacea side effect as a result of this.

Bloating and Abdominal pain

The growth of bacteroides in the intestines may also result in bloating and abdominal pain.

Diarrhea

Diarrhea many be a common Echinacea side effect as a result of taking too much of the herb. Since there is disruption in the normal flora, other opportunistic pathogens may invade causing loose bowel movements. The presence of high level of bacteroides may also lead to diarrhea as the body’s way to eliminate the microorganisms.

3. Other Echinacea Side effects

Asthma

Asthma may be an allergic reaction to Echinacea. Asthma may cause wheezing and shortness of breath as the lungs undergo an inflammatory response as a response to the allergen. Patients allergic to marigolds, ragweed, chrysanthemum and daisies may also be allergic to Echinacea.

Anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is a rare severe allergic reaction when one is taking Echinacea. This may also result in those who are really allergic to the herb. Patients experiencing anaphylaxis may exhibit difficulty of breathing and other allergic symptoms such as watery eyes, runny nose, development of hives and wheezing.

Muscle and joint pains

Patients taking Echinacea was also observed to manifest these Echinacea side effects; however, it is unclear whether the herb caused the symptoms or they were present as cold symptoms in patients experiencing flu or colds.

Other rare Echinacea side-effects include thrombocytopenia purpura, leukopenia, atrial fibrillations, and disorientation. However, there is a weak correlation; thereby these Echinacea side effects are loosely linked to Echinacea use and may be a result of other factors. Patients may also suffer from mild Echinacea side effects such as dry mouth, unpleasant taste, tingling sensation on the tongue and sore throat as a result of localized effects of the herb.

Despite the Echinacea side effects, it is still safe to take Echinacea as an herbal remedy. The Echinacea side effects usually arise when there is unregulated or prolonged use of more than 10 days. Echinacea side effects may be prevented by taking the recommended dosage of Echinacea supplements in order to get the desired effects and prevent the occurrence of Echinacea side-effects. Nevertheless, Echinacea is still advantageous, so proper use should be employed.

Other medicine side effects should be monitored when taking medications such as Glucophage side effects.

Citalopram is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor drug that is used for the management of depression. Those taking antidepressant medications or other psychoactive medications are concerned about their side effects because they apparently cause various effects. Side effects of citalopram are also vast and may involve various systems. When taking citalopram, it is important to understand its mechanism of action, uses, and side effects in order to have full knowledge and increased participation in the therapy.

Citalopram is indicated primarily for major depression, but it can also be prescribed for people with the following conditions:

• Anxiety
• Panic Disorder
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
• Body dysmorphic disorder
• Obsessive compulsive disorder
• Premature ejaculation
• Diabetic neuropathy
• Pots stoke pathological crying
• Migraines
• Management of hot flushes

Citalopram is taken daily as one dose in the morning or in the evening. Citalopram is advantageous over other antidepressant medications because it has minimal drug interactions; thereby it can be safely used in patients with other co morbid conditions.

Citalopram exerts its effects by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin; thereby increasing free serotonin that may bind to 5HT3 receptors in the brain. People with depression are believed to have limited serotonin in the brain. Taking citalopram increases the free serotonin that may bind to the receptor sites, thereby producing desired effects.

Side effects of Citalopram

The side effects of citalopram are commonly caused by the same mechanism of action of the drug. Side effects may include:

1. Nausea

Nausea is a common side effect of citalopram. This occurs due to the binding of the serotonin on the 5HT3 receptors in the digestive tract. The 5HT3 receptors are known to stimulate vomiting when serotonin binds with them. This side effect of citalopram usually subsides after several days of treatment because the body has already adjusted to the medication. Nausea may also be reduced by taking the drug with food. This side effect of citalopram may also be a swine flu vaccine side-effect as well as side effect of other medications.

2. Sexual dysfunction

Sexual dysfunction is also a common side effect of citalopram. There are various conditions that may be experienced such as lack of interest in sex, difficulty becoming aroused, trouble achieving orgasm or anorgasmia, decreased sexual stimuli response, genital anesthesia and ejaculatory anhedonia. These are common side effects of citalopram that may persist up to months or years of discontinuing the drug. This condition is termed as Post SSRI sexual dysfunction.

3. Flat affect and apathy

These emotional side effects of citalopram are due to the decreased dopamine in the brain. As serotonin increases, the levels of dopamine in the CNS also decrease. Because of this, patients may experience mood flattening.

4. Sedation

Citalopram also has antihistamine effects. When citalopram binds to the receptor sites, it usually exerts antihistamine effects leading to sedation. When sedation occurs, it is best taken in the evening to prevent alteration of day time activities.

5. Suicidal ideations

Most of the antidepressant medications may lead to the occurrence of suicidal thinking especially in patients less than 24 years of age. This side effect of citalopram is traced at increased energy levels and vivid thinking of depressed clients in order to undertake suicide. During times of depression, patients usually lack the will and energy to undertake a suicide. Once the drug takes its effect, there is sudden increase in urge to do suicide. Due to this, it is advised that depressed patients taking citalopram be monitored during the first weeks to months of therapy.

6. Cardiac arrhythmias

Cardiac arrhythmias are also possible side effects of citalopram. Due to this, it is indicated by the FDA that citalopram should not be taken for more than 40 mg per day because of increased risk for life-threatening arrhythmias.

Other side effects of citalopram that tend to be uncommon include increased blood pressure, bruxism or grinding of the teeth at night, dizziness, headache, anxiety, dilated pupils, hallucinations and convulsions. Allergic reactions may also develop to those hypersensitive to the drug. Stopping citalopram may also cause side effects such as SSRI discontinuation syndromes, a condition similar to drug withdrawal. In order to prevent this and other side effects of citalopram, always take the medication as prescribed and never increase and lower the dosage on your own.

The side effects of citalopram may be mild, but intake of more than the enough dosages usually leads to mores severe side effects.